1. Structure, basic parts, functions and development of the plant body. Introduction to the organization of multicellular vascular plants. The principle of cell organization into tissues and organs. The concept of meristems as the basis of continuous plant development. Structural differences between monocots and dicots. 2. The principle and various types of interactions in a multicellular organism. Types of cells and their mutual association. The cell wall as a barrier, but also as a mediator of intercellular interactions. Primary, secondary cell wall, architecture and method of expansion. Plasmodesmata and intercellular spaces. 3. Basic types of tissues, structural and functional division into covering, vascular and basic tissues. Anatomical principle of organization of parenchymatous, collenchymatous and sclerenchymatous tissues. Structure of the cell wall, physiological and metabolic parameters of individual tissue types with respect to their distribution in the plant organism. 4. Basic organization of vascular tissues. Xylem, types of xylem cells, primary and secondary xylem. Differentiation of tracheids and tracheary elements, degradation of the primary cell wall and programmed cell death. Phloem, types and specialization of phloem cells. Structure and differentiation of reticulate and companion cells of angiosperms, and reticulate cells in gymnosperms. Vascular bundles, types, structure, arrangement in the root and stem. Vascular cambium, structure, organization and seasonal changes in activity. Formation of secondary vascular tissues. 5. Integumentary tissue system. Arrangement of epidermal cells, their basic functions. Specialized epidermal cells of the aboveground and underground parts of the plant. Anatomical and histological structure of leaves. Stomata, trichomes, external secretory and defense structures. Differentiation of cells in the root epidermis, differentiation of root hairs and their specialized type of growth. 6. Meristems. Differentiation of apical meristems, their embryonic origin. Primary and secondary meristems. Apical meristem of the stem, organization and cyto-histological zonation, preservation of identity and continuity, apical initials. Vegetative meristem, origin and establishment of leaf primordia and lateral shoots. Primary tissues of the stem, primary and secondary growth of the stem and root. 7. Organization of the root apex. Basic radial and longitudinal zonation. Zones of proliferation, expansion and differentiation of cells. Growth apex, root cap and primary apical meristems. Specification of cell lineages. Primary root growth and secondary thickening. Root branching. Establishment and development of lateral roots, types of root systems. 8. Embryogenesis and sexual reproduction of plants. Vegetative and generative cycles of seed plants, the concept of sporophyte and gametophyte. Flower, floral meristems, basic structural and functional organization of plant generative organs. Asexual reproduction of plants. 9. Development of sex cells I. Male gametophyte, microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis. Development and structure of stamens and anthers. Stages of pollen development, regulation of meiosis and cytokinesis, function of tapetum. Pollen grain. 10. Development of sex cells II. Female gametophyte, macrosporogenesis and macrogametogenesis. Structure of pistil, stigma and carpel, development and organization of carpels. Embryo sac and ovule of angiosperms, organization of the embryo sac. 11. Pollination and fertilization. Interaction of pollen with stigma, pollen germination and growth of pollen tube. Compatible and incompatible reactions. Double fertilization in angiosperms. Zygote, embryo development, proembryo, suspensor, embryo differentiation. Endosperm, structure, function, types. Structure of seeds and fruits, dormancy. Embryogenesis of monocots and dicots. 12. Special cell types and tissues, secretory structures, plant organ modifications, symbiotic structures.
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